Chapter 3

Walter Grunden, “No Retaliation in Kind: Japanese Chemical Warfare Policy in World War II,” One Hundred Years of Chemical Warfare: Research, Deployment, Consequences, Nov. 28, 2017.

“Background of Unit 731,” Pacific Atrocities Education, Apr. 3, 2018.

War is Boring, “Terrifying: Japan Used Biological Weapons on China During World War II,” The National Interest, Apr. 5, 2019.

Nicholas Kristof, “Unmasking Horror—A Special Report.; Japan Confronting Gruesome War Atrocity,” New York Times, Mar. 17, 1995.

Russell Working, “The Trial of Unit 731,” The Japan Times, Jun. 5, 2001.

Samuel Cox, “H-057-2: I-400 and Operation Cherry Blossoms at Night: Japanese Plan for Biological Warfare— September 1945,” Naval History and Heritage Command, Jan. 2021.

Nicholas Kristof, “Unmasking Horror–A Special Report.; Japan Confronting Gruesome War Atrocity,” New York Times, Mar. 17, 1995.

“What Was Operation Paperclip,” History Channel, Jun. 2, 2014.

Hal Gold, Japan’s Infamous Unit 731: Firsthand Accounts of Japan’s Wartime Human Experimentation Program (Singapore: Tuttle Publishing, 1996), 26.

Vincent Cirillo, “‘More Fatal than Powder and Shot’: Dysentery in the US Army during the Mexican War, 1846–48,” Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 52, no. 3 (2009): 400-413, doi: 10.1353/pbm.0.0097.

Jeffrey Sartin, “Infectious Diseases during the Civil War: The Triumph of the ‘Third Army,” Clinical Infectious Diseases 16, no. 4 (1993): 580-584, doi: 10.1093/clind/16.4.580.

“Mexican War, 1846 to 1848,” Family Search.

Carol Byerly, “War Losses (USA),” International Encyclopedia, Oct. 8, 2014.

“History of Medicine: Japan,” Britannica. *“Important medical breakthroughs by the Japanese followed, among them the discovery of the plague bacillus in 1894, the discovery of a dysentery bacillus in 1897, the isolation of adrenaline (epinephrine) in crystalline form in 1901, and the first experimental production of a tar-induced cancer in 1918.”

Hal Gold, Unit 731: Testimony (Tokyo: Yenbooks, 1996), 18-20.

“The Japanese Medical Corps,” New York Times, Feb. 5, 1905.

“General Considerations of Battle Trauma,” AMEDD Center of History & Heritage.

“Japanese Medical Manuscript Notebooks, 1810–1849 and Undated,” Duke University Library. *“Hanaoka Seishū (華 岡 青 洲) (1760–1835) was most known for his study and teaching of herbal medicine, surgical techniques, and the treatment of cancers, fistulas, and other serious ailments; he was also well-known for his pioneering use of general anesthesia long before it was first attempted by Western physicians.”

Maj. Richard P. Milloy, “The Influence of The Russo-Japanese War on Medical and Engineer Operations in the US Army,” School of Advanced Military Studies, 2014.

“Seaman, Louis Livingston. Collection, 1869–1932 | Illinois History and Lincoln Collections,” Illinois Library, accessed Jan. 10, 2023.

Hal Gold, Japan’s Infamous Unit 731: Firsthand Accounts of Japan’s Wartime Human Experimentation Program (Singapore: Tuttle Publishing, 1996), 29.

Ibid., 28-30.

“The Development of Unit 731,” Pacific Atrocities Education, 2021.

“Joseph Mengele,” Holocaust Encyclopedia, last edited Feb. 21, 2023.

Gerhard Baader, Susan E. Lederer, Morris Low et al., “Pathways to Human Experimentation, 1933–1945: Germany, Japan, and the United States,” Osiris 20 (2005): 205-231.

Materials on the Trial of Former Servicemen in the Japanese Army Charged With Manufacturing and Employing Bacteriological Weapons (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1950), 9.

Hal Gold, Japan’s Infamous Unit 731: Firsthand Accounts of Japan’s Wartime Human Experimentation Program (Singapore: Tuttle Publishing, 1996), 61-65.

Hal Gold, Unit 731: Testimony (Tokyo: Yenbooks, 1996), 68–69.

Ibid., 70-72.

Friedrich Frischknecht, “The History of Biological Warfare,” EMBO Reports 4, no. S1 (2003): S47-52, doi: 10.1038/sj.embor.embor849.